Motivations of College Students to Return to Sports Following an Injury: A Proposal
Introduction
Students’ motivation acts as an integral component of our understanding of their engagement in sports (Ntoumanis 2001). Motivation hinges on a social cognitive context and refers to the level to which students uphold their behaviour(s) and partake in an activity with a comprehensive feeling of choice and awareness of control (Deci & Ryan 1985). Motivational research in sports is concerned with the social contexts that enable student engagement. Whether such students are motivated intrinsically or extrinsically is reliant on their awareness of a psychologically supportive environment. One of the key theories projected to have a significant influence on the proposed study is the Self-Determination Theory (SDT). The theory holds that supporting our intrinsic or natural tendencies is beneficial to our behaviour in healthy and effective ways. SDT is also concerned with the role of cultural and social factors in inhibiting or aiding people's sense of initiative or desire, over and above the quality of their performance and well-being (Deci & Ryan 2000). According to Ntoumanis (2005), self-determination is associated with establishing students' level of engagement in sports outside and inside of school. Ntoumanis (2005) also reports a positive correlation between active engagement/participation in sports and self-determination motivation, as well as mental, learning, social, and psychomotor experiences (Vallerand 2001). For this reason, SDT holds that giving students a social context capable of supporting their critical and innate psychological needs of competence, relatedness, and autonomy, determines self-determination, in addition to influencing various positive responses (Deci & Ryan 1985). SDT has emerged as the most popular theoretical framework in examining the motivational features that impact college students' level of engagement in physical activity (Ullrich-French, Smith & Cox 2011). Deci and Ryan (2008) report a positive association between SDT on the one hand, and physical, and psychological well-being on the other hand. From a physical activity context, SDT is typified by a multidimensional focus on motivation whose goal is to explain what compels an individual to partake in physical activity behaviour(s). Another component of the SDT that is of interest to the proposed study involves the need to satisfy three psychological needs that an individual athlete experiences: competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan 1985). Promoting these needs is vital in that it enables individuals to have a preference for intrinsically regulated engagement over externally regulated engagement in sports, a transition that is also characterised by enhanced adherence to these behaviours (Ryan & Deci 2008).
The proposed study shall endevour to explore the individual motivations of college students to return to sports following an injury. Individuals differ in terms of their psychological and physical readiness to return to sport following an injury (Podlog & Eklund 2006). The overarching objective of the proposed study is to examine the roles played by intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in influencing an athlete's return to sports following an injury, and whether other factors such as the athlete's socioeconomic background, ethnicity, and education have an influence on such a decision. The proposed study seeks to examine the student's individual need for self-motivation with respect to the three fundamental intrinsic psychological needs of the self-determination theory: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. The study will involve qualitative and quantitative research of relevant journals and articles to establish the motivation of participants for participation in sports. The study will be qualitative in nature given that it seeks to explore participants’ behaviour, opinions, and feelings (Davies & Hughes 2014).
Aim of Objectives of the study
The overall aim of this study is to determine the motivations of college students to return to sports following an injury.
Specifically, the study hopes to achieve the following:
- To determine the extrinsic factors affecting participants’ return to sports following an injury
- To determine the intrinsic factors affecting participants’ return to sports following an injury
- To establish whether an athlete’s ethnicity and socio-economic background has a decisive impact on their return to sports
Research Questions
The proposed study hinges on the following research questions:
- What are some of the intrinsic motivations that influence college students’ return to sports after an injury?
- What are some of the extrinsic motivations that influence college students’ return to sports after an injury?
Literature Review
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in sports
Self-determination theory is a cognitive approach that perceives the human as a growth-orientated and active organism who is always seeking to meet his basic needs, capacities, and potentialities (Deci & Ryan 2002). Ryan, Huta, and Deci (2013) trace the genesis of the conceptual design of self-determination theory to the empirical assessment of the interaction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation as used in sports refers to those activities that an individual performs with the goal of realising a certain separable result, such as avoiding punishment, receiving a tangible reward, getting approval, or recognition (Ryan et al. 2009). Conversely, intrinsic motivation refers to the activities that an individual engages in owing to the inherent satisfactions and pleasures it offers (Ryan et al. 2009).
Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation, as used within the realm of SDT, implies that human beings, as active organisms, possess within them an unpremeditated inclination to exercise their skills and act on their environments. Deci and Ryan (2000) describe intrinsic motivation as a profoundly developed inclination of an organism to use and extend the capacities and skills it possesses. Such inclination is linked to enhanced competence in the individual capacity to handle the physical world and its demands (Ryan, Rigby & Przybylski 2006). Brown (2007) described intrinsic motivation as inherent satisfaction or pleasure, whereas Coon and Mitterer (2010) viewed it as simple enjoyment of activities undertaken. Cognitive evaluation theory (CET), a sub-set of the SDT framework, seeks to focus on conditions that enable intrinsic motivation versus those that undermine it, as opposed to the causes of intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan 2008). In particular, CET delineates how the impact of social inputs on intrinsic motivation, along with the outcomes and processes linked to it. According to this theory, events often viewed as negatively influencing an individual's experience of competence or autonomy tend to undermine intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, events that support feelings of competence and autonomy increase intrinsic motivation (Ryan et al. 2009).
Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation involves engaging in an activity or behaviour with a view to acquiring some results distinct from the actual activity. Many exercises and sports activities tend to be extrinsically motivated, but generally sporting activities (Ryan & Deci 2000). Most physical activities encompass both extrinsic and extrinsic motives, a reflection that both are essential in the context of sporting activities.
Association of competence, autonomy, and relatedness with sport engagement
Deci and Ryan (1985) describe autonomy as a student's perception of control and/or choice over their behaviour. In sports, students can achieve autonomy by providing them with a certain level of control over a certain learning activity (Deci & Ryan 1985). Personal autonomy has a huge influence on the self-determination theory. Teixeria et al. (2012) are of the view that autonomy is associated with the perceived genesis of an individual's actions and in this way, is different from such other constructs as self-reliance or independence. Deci and Ryan (2012) opine that a student who views an activity as meaningful or informational shall be supported as they seek to realise autonomy. Ryan and Deci (2000) define the need for competence as the appreciation and implementation of effectiveness, particularly when a student is faced with a suitable level of challenge, within their social context. Elsewhere, Baumeister and Leary (1995) have defined relatedness as a student's perception of empathy, inclusion, and caring. Relatedness within the social setting can be realised through encouragement from others, and through the cultivation of friendship. Reis et al. (2000) contend that the need for relatedness hinges on an individual's feeling of being connected and close to others. According to Reis et al. (2000), the need for competence entails the recognised capability to successfully undertake the coveted behaviour, while the need for autonomy is determined by an individual's feeling of the activities being undertaken in conformity with and as supported by the self.
Previous studies point towards a positive correlation between positive sporting intentions and self-determined motivation, current physical fitness, and exercise levels in youth and adult populations (Daley & Duda 2006; Moustaka et al. 2012; Stephan, Boiché & Le Scanff 2010). Teixeira et al. (2012) report the consistent success of interventions based on SDT which seek to improve MVPA (moderate-to-vigorous physical activity).
Both extrinsic and intrinsic factors have found wide application in the sporting context taking into account the fact that various forms of motivations have been linked to different levels of sport commitment, enjoyment, exercise adherence, and sportsmanship (Krinanthi, Konstantinos & Andreas 2010). In their study, Krinanthi et al. (2010) endeavoured to assess the role of SDT with regard to sporting commitment among students at a university. Their study relied on the SMS Sport Motivational Scale) and Sport Commitment Questionnaire as tools for data collection. Study findings indicated that the sporting commitments of the students were largely determined by their high levels of self-determination. While both external motivation and internal motivation had a positive influence on students’ sport participation, however, only internal motivation was shown to have a strong influence on the student's commitment to sports. In a similar fashion, a study by Hodge, Lonsdale, and Ng (2008) established that higher rates of attainment of SDT's fundamental needs led to reduced rates of athlete burnout. Lonsdale et al. (2007) opine that SDT could be a likely premise for assessing the precursors for athlete engagement. Ryan and Deci (2002) opine that the level to which these needs are fulfilled shall determine the extent to which individuals can experience such psychological outcomes as engagement. On the other hand, the level to which these needs are frustrated or thwarted shall determine the extent to which individuals can expect to experience such negative psychological consequences as burnout.
Kristnsen (2013) conducted a cross-sectional study involving youth players in an ice-hockey team with the intention of using the SDT to assess the players' motivation and engagement in the sport. The study was based on Vallerand's (1997) model that hinges on the supposed consecutive relationship between distinguished autonomy support, satisfaction and frustration of fundamental psychological needs, athlete engagement, and self-determination motivation. Study findings offered support for the suggested model, hence pointing towards the indirect support of felt autonomy support. The study findings also pointed towards an association between athlete engagement and psychological need satisfaction. The study findings underline the significance of need satisfaction (especially autonomy and competence) in forecasting sustainable positive sports experiences.
Ardern et al (2014) carried out a cross-sectional study to assess the effect of psychological readiness of an athlete to return to recreational and sports activities following treatment for knee-related injuries. The study consisted of 164 participants. During follow-up, the researchers reported that nearly 40% of participants had resumed their pre-injury activity. In addition, participants who had resumed sporting activities also reported more positive psychological responses, such as increased satisfaction with their present knee function. Conversely, participants who were yet to return identified a lack of trust in the knee, poor knee function, and fear of new injury as some of the main reasons for their reluctance. The study findings identified the psychological readiness to resume recreational and sporting activities as a key determinant of resuming pre-injury activity.
Elsewhere, Tjong et al. (2014) conducted a qualitative study to examine whether intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect a patient's decision to resume sporting activities to the level attained prior to the ACL (anterior cruciate ligament) reconstruction. In total, 31 patients aged between 14 and 40 years took part in semi-structured interviews. The results of the study identified three key themes: lifestyle changes, fear, and innate personality traits. Aspects of these three factors had a huge influence on the decision by patients to resume the pre-injury sport. This was the case both for patients who had already returned to their sport, and those who were yet to do so. These findings underscore the significance of physicians acknowledging and attending to lifestyle changes and psychological factors that play a key role in influencing a patient's decision to return to a specific sport.
A study by Christino et al (2016) aimed to determine the link between an athlete’s self-esteem, psychological distress, and health locus of control. This was a cross-sectional study involving 27 patients who had undergone ACL reconstructions over the past 6 to 24 months. The patients were predominantly athletes (89%), with nearly two-thirds (65%) of participants indicating that they had resumed sports activities at a competitive level following ACL reconstruction. The study revealed significant relationships between locus of control and self-esteem levels on the one hand, and validated outcome measures and function test performance following ACL reconstruction, on the other hand. More importantly, Christino et al. (2016) reported considerable levels of self-esteem among sport returners compared to those who were yet to return to sports, indicating the influential role of intrinsic factors in return to sports.
Methodology
Research Design
This study will be based on both qualitative and quantitative research. As such, it will be a mixed-method type of research. Using the qualitative research design, the researcher will be in a position to gain an in-depth understanding of the experiences of participants. Qualitative research emphasises the intimate relationship between the issue under study and the researcher the socially constructed reality, as well as the situational constraints that inform the study's inquiry. Qualitative research enables the researcher to gain insights into the underlying opinions, motivations, and reasons regarding a certain phenomenon. Thus, the research design offers explanations for the problem at hand. Since the study aims at exploring the individual motivation of college students to return to sports following an injury, adopting a qualitative research design will thus help the research to examine the behaviour, feelings, and opinions of study participants in regard to the phenomenon under study. One of the benefits of settling on a qualitative design is that it will allow the researcher to generate rich data on the phenomenon under study, and at the same time, ensure that participants' perspectives remain intact. Moreover, this type of design offers the researcher multiple perspectives for understanding the issue being studied. As such, the researcher is in a position to analyse individuals or groups of individuals regarding a certain phenomenon. Moreover, a qualitative research design enables the researcher to immerse into the situation facing participants and hence obtain the perspectives of study participants through interacting with them directly. On the other hand, quantitative research stresses the objective assessment, and mathematical, numerical, or statistical analysis of data that the researcher has collected via questionnaires, surveys, and polls (Babbie 2010). The quantitative researcher is thus concerned with a collection of numerical data, followed by its generalisation across groups of participants with the objective of explaining a given phenomenon (Mujs 2010).
Participants
Participants will be drawn from university students who are active in sports. To be eligible for the study, students must be actively involved in any kind of sports at the university. Moreover, students must have had an injury either in high school, or at the university, and the injury should have had an impact on their ability to partake in sports.
Sampling
The selection of participants in this study shall be based on a convenience sampling method. In this case, the researcher intends to solicit participants to the study on the basis of their former or current participation in sports. Participants shall be contacted by sending mass emails to various athletic clubs such as football, rugby, and athletics, with the goal of receiving responses from its members.
Data Collection
Data shall be collected via a semi-structured interview questionnaire. The interview shall be conducted via video communication (Skype), with each interview lasting between 30 and 60 minutes. During the interview, participants will have the opportunity to respond to interview questions within the given timeline. In order to optimise the interview setting and ensure the interview receives feedback, a test interview shall be conducted with non-target participants, though it shall not be included in the study. The interviews will be semi-structured, implying that the interview questions shall be pre-determined. Nonetheless, the researcher plans on varying the order of questions from one interview to the other. Moreover, such ordering could also be determined by how the interview develops (Wengraf 2001). The interviews hope to capture participants’ experience with a sports injury and the kinds of implicit and explicit motivations that they are likely to have encountered in their quest to return to sports following injury. Since semi-structured interviews are often conducted based on a relatively open framework, this facilitates conversational and focused two-way communication. Consequently, the interviewees are in a position to alter the wording of questions or the order in which they appear. Moreover, the interviewer has the discretion to omit or give an explanation to questions that seems somewhat redundant. Semi-structured interviews also help to give comparable and reliable data (Cohen 2006).
Data analysis
The researcher will categorise interviews into smaller, but meaningful, units, using content analysis. In this case, the interviews shall be condensed, thereby enabling the researcher to highlight the center of the meaning. As a result, the researcher can then code the units and classify them into themes. As a research technique, content analysis enables the researcher to make valid and replicable inferences by means of coding and interpreting textual materials. Furthermore, the researcher can also convert qualitative data into quantitative data by way of systematically examining such tests as graphics and documents (Patton 2002). Sun (2009) opines that 'a good content analysis should be a scientific, objective, systematic, quantitative, and generalisable description of specific communication content’ (P. 82).
Reliability and validity
Reliability is the ability to replicate data and research findings in other studies (Krippendorff 2012). In other words, reliability offers the researcher an assurance that the research findings can be replicated elsewhere. On the other hand, is concerned with truths. According to Krippendorff (2012), 'validity provides assurances that the claims emerging from the research are borne out in fact' (p. 268). According to Alonso et al. (2012), the reliability of content analysis is reliant on the coding classification and quantity of coders. To increase reliability, the researcher hopes to take an intensive course in coding prior to commencing the research, in addition to taking a reliability test. On the other hand, the reliability of the study will be ensured through triangulation. Patton (2002) describes triangulation as the use of strategies aimed at minimising distortion and systematic bias while conducting data analysis.
Study limitations
The researcher anticipates encountering a few limitations to the study. First, the sample size is anticipated to be small, owing to the defined inclusion criteria. Inclusion of more respondents could have yielded stronger results. Secondly, a limitation in finances could also mean that the researcher can only interview a small sample size.
Ethical Considerations
Since this research shall involve human subjects, it, therefore, involves ethical issues. The researcher shall endevour to ensure that these ethical issues are observed. To begin with, the researcher will seek consent from the university's ethics committed prior to conducting research. Secondly, the researcher shall also seek the approval of the university where they hope to conduct the study. Additionally, the study participants shall be required to sign a consent form indicating that they have chosen to take part in the study of their own volition. Moreover, the researcher will inform them that any information disclosed during the interviews will be held in strict confidence, and such information shall only be used for purposes of informing the study findings, the researcher will ensure that the participants are aware of the aims and objectives of the study.
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