Introduction
Social theory refers to a framework of concepts, evidence, and philosophical views that are used to understand and interpret social phenomena (Seidman, 2016). Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber are among the main contributors to social theory. The socioeconomic experiences of individuals, groups, and communities are effectively described in the context of the social theory. In addition, socioeconomic differences in society, such as disparities in income, level of education, and access to healthcare services, can also be interpreted in line with the main concepts of the social theory. Based on this understanding, the essay in this document presents an in-depth examination and interpretation of key concepts of social theory in line with the theoretical views of Marx, Durkheim, and Weber.
Social Evolution
Social evolution refers to gradual changes in society and its institutions. It also refers to social and economic development in society (Seidman, 2016). There are three main types of social evolution: biological, technological, and cultural (Adam, 2013). The structural functional theory of Emile Durkheim can be used to understand the process of social evolution. According to Durkheim’s structural functionalism, society is similar to a human being. The government and citizens are important parts of society that act as the organs and parts of the body (Brown, 2013). If one or more body organs or parts fail to work, a person dies. Similarly, if government operations and citizens are not functioning optimally, the society will malfunction (Durkheim, 2014). In the context of Durkheim’s structural functional theory, social evolution occurs when government operations and citizens change in the context of culture and technological innovation. Therefore, positive social evolution occurs when government function and human activities are aligned with changes in the technological and cultural environments.
Durkheim’s social change theory is also applicable in the interpretation of social and political changes within society that contribute to social evolution. According to the social change theory, changes in society are often not intended (Seidman, 2016). This means that social change takes place as a mechanical process and is not intentional. Durkheim’s views on social change were informed by the effects of the division of labor in Europe during the Industrial Revolution. Notably, Durkheim postulated that social change is influenced by two main factors: population density and advances in technology (Brown, 2013). In line with the social change theory, it can be argued that political and social changes are necessitated by the need to meet the demands of an increasing population and to align public services to technological changes (Adam, 2013). Therefore, political change should aim at ensuring that all people have equal access to public services (Seidman, 2016). The adoption and implementation of modern technologies in governance, such as e-government systems in the UK, is an example of positive social evolution that contributes to equitable access to public services.
Industrialization
Industrialization is defined as the process of economic transformation from agricultural production to the manufacturing of commodities (Adam, 2013). The characteristics of industrialization include assembly lines, division of labor, technological innovation, and mechanized mass production of goods (Beetham, 2013). The philosophy of Marxism is useful in the determination of how industrialization manifests itself within contemporary society. The theoretical concepts of Marxism were postulated by the works of Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx. The theorists came up with six basic ideas that define Marxism: exploitation and alienation, base and superstructure, labor theory of value, historical and dialectical materialism, ideology, and class consciousness (Marx, 2013). According to Karl Marx, capitalism is the exploitation of laborers by the wealthy or owners of capital (Jackson, 2014). Therefore, the mechanization of production during the industrialization processes minimizes the exploitation of workers. The theory of Marxism was brought forth as a reflection on the exploitation of farm workers during the Agrarian Revolution. However, industrialization has not eliminated class consciousness (Beetham, 2013). This is depicted by the fact that the industrialized society is stratified into classes based on people’s socioeconomic status. In this sense, social evolution aims at promoting the upward mobility of members of society from the lower class to the upper class.
Max Weber's Bureaucratic Theory can be likened to the ideas of Karl Marx on social class. Weber defined bureaucracies as highly structured organizations. Like Marx, Weber argued that class is a form of political power that influences socioeconomic development (Giddens, 2013). Division of labor, hierarchy, technical qualification, rules and regulations, and impersonality are the features of Weber's bureaucratic theory (Beetham, 2013). Notably, the features of bureaucracy are similar to the features of industrialization. For example, both industrialization and bureaucracy are characterized by division of labor and technical qualification (Marx, 2013). Therefore, an industrialized society is synonymous with a bureaucratic society. Weber argued that bureaucratic governments were created to ensure that essential services, such as schooling, sewage disposal, healthcare, and safe drinking water, are provided to the public (Giddens, 2013). Both Marx and Weber addressed the issue of class from the perspective of divisions in society. Based on both Marxism and the Bureaucratic Theory, the political elite fall within the upper classes of society, while civilians fall within the lower and middle classes. However, it is important to consider the role of industrialization in eliminating the stratification of society into classes. It is argued that industrialization perpetuates social classes within society (Jackson, 2014). This is the reason why Karl Marx argued that a classless society will only be formed when the political elite stops advocating for the welfare of the ruling class by repressing members of the lower class.
Social Class Theory
Karl Marx suggested the social class theory with a view to demonstrating that society is characterized by continuous class struggles (Adam, 2013). According to Marx, each social class focuses on pursuing its interests. From the lens of the social class theory, the political class focuses on pursuing its interests rather than addressing the needs of the lower class. While Marx and Weber viewed society from the perspective of social classes, Emile Durkheim argued that society is holistic (Giddens, 2013). Durkheim’s theory of structural functionalism is based on the idea that society is a single entity. According to Durkheim, each component of society, such as political systems and the public, serves specific roles that make the society whole (Brown, 2013). Durkheim believed that each societal component works towards the overall good of the society. On the other hand, Marx and Weber believed that society is generally exploitative. The two theorists maintained that members of the upper social class exploit members of the lower class (Jackson, 2014). The views of Marx and Weber on social class are more convincing than Durkheim’s arguments. This is because the capitalist society is characterized by the wealthy who take advantage of their low-income workers for increased profitability (Giddens, 2013).
Weber agreed with Marx’s social class theory but provided a wider view of class differences in society (Jackson, 2014). On the one hand, Marx believed that class differences are mainly due to economic factors. On the other hand, Weber believed that social classes are based on a wide range of influences in addition to economic factors. According to Weber, politics, education, family structure, and religion contribute to the development of social classes in society (Giddens, 2013). Therefore, Weber presented an expanded view of the social class theory. The stratification of the UK society into upper, middle, working, and lower classes illustrates that Weber’s view of social class theory is more comprehensive. This is because members of the UK society fall into specific social classes depending on a wide range of factors, such as level of education, employment, and household income.
Inequality
Inequality refers to disparities or differences among members of society related to socioeconomic status and access to social opportunities, such as education, healthcare, and employment (Mommsen and Osterhammel, 2013). Social inequality occurs due to the stratification of society into lower, middle, and upper socioeconomic classes. Durkheim, Marx, and Weber talked about inequality in their theories. According to Durkheim’s social class theory, society is integrated both organically and mechanically (Lyman, 2016). Organic integration of society occurs due to interdependence and specialization. On the other hand, mechanical integration of the society is based on shared sentiments and beliefs (Vidich, 2016). Therefore, Durkheim viewed inequality from a functionalist point of view. The theorist believed that social inequality is essential for an integrated and functional society. Unlike Durkheim, Marx, and Weber maintained critical views on social inequality. For example, Marx argued that social inequality acts as a source of conflict within society (Mommsen and Osterhammel, 2013). Marx maintained that the conflict between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie is attributed to the social inequality that is experienced within society. According to Weber, social inequality is attributed to differences in power and influence among members of society (Lyman, 2016).
Vidich (2016) reveals that Weber differed with Marx on the causes of social inequality. For example, Weber argued that Marx’s view of social inequality was too simplistic. This is even though both Weber and Marx did not share Durkheim’s view that inequality brings about social integration. Marx argued that differences in access to means of production bring about inequality (Mommsen and Osterhammel, 2013). On the other hand, Weber provided an expanded view of social inequality by including elements, such as prestige and political power, to influence socioeconomic processes (Vidich, 2016). Weber’s views on inequality are more comprehensive when compared to Marx’s philosophical arguments. This is because Weber was able to demonstrate that political power and influence determine the ability of an individual to access or utilize opportunities for social and economic development (Lyman, 2016). Therefore, individuals who have political power influence the allocation of public resources to serve their interests.
Development of the Welfare State
The welfare state refers to expenditures of the UK government that are aimed at improving social equality and security, education, employment, and the delivery of healthcare services (Vidich, 2016). From the perspective of Durkheim’s social class theory, the welfare state was developed to integrate the UK society. Organic integration is achieved through the development of the welfare state because it contributes to interdependence among members of the UK society. For example, improving employment promotes interdependence between employers and their employees. The development of the welfare state was also aimed at promoting mechanical integration, such as the establishment of shared sentiments and values among members of the UK society (Mommsen and Osterhammel, 2013). Values such as equality are established when the government improves access to socioeconomic services for all.
The development of the welfare state can also be described in the context of the theories of Karl Marx and Max Weber. Based on the political arguments of Marx and Weber, it is argued that the development of the welfare state contributes to class conflicts and inequality within the UK society (Lyman, 2016). For instance, conflict between the poor and the rich in the UK would be attributed to the inequalities in the distribution of socioeconomic resources and opportunities by the welfare state. In addition, the development of the welfare state would have contributed to differences among social classes in the UK, which are defined by political power and influence (Mommsen and Osterhammel, 2013). Notably, those who have political power and influence have more access to socioeconomic opportunities than the poor. In the context of Durkheim’s structural functional theory, the development of the welfare state can be seen as the prerequisite to social evolution in the UK (Vidich, 2016).
Conclusion
The theorists Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber developed specific philosophical views and theories on social evolution, industrialization, social class, and inequality, which are applicable in understanding the development of the welfare state in the UK. Durkheim’s structural functional theory implies that the welfare state was developed to promote social evolution. However, the theories of Marx and Weber on social class, industrialization, and inequality indicate that the welfare state contributes to conflicts within the UK society. Notably, Weber provided an expanded view of inequality and social class because he expanded on Marx’s capitalist view to include concepts such as political power and influence.
References
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