Planning Learning
Introduction
For the learning process to be effective in imparting knowledge and enriching the student’s experience, it must be optimally planned. Bosch (2006) asserts that planning the learning process of a factor in the long-term, short-term, and medium-term elements of learning. Thus, planning for learning should focus on the content of learning, organisation of the learning process, the teaching methods and practices, and the feedback process (Alias 2017). There are a number of aspects that must be taken into consideration in order to enhance the learning process. First, teachers should incorporate the relevant theories, principles, and models in the teaching, learning, and assessment processes. Secondly, it is essential for teachers to ensure that the teaching process is optimally planned. This paper examines the ways in which theories, principles, and models of assessment can be applied to teaching, learning, and assessment. The paper further examines how planning the teaching process enhances the effectiveness with which teachers meeting the students’ different needs.
Analysis
Ways in which theories, principles and models of assessment can be applied to teaching, learning and assessment.
The assessment constitutes one of the fundamental elements that should be considered in planning for learning. Conducting assessment enables teachers to examine the students’ learning progression, and to determine the possible learning difficulties that students may be experiencing hence providing insight on the necessary steps to be undertaken in order to enhance learning. Berry (2008) emphasises that learning cannot occur without assessment, which means that learning and assessment are positively correlated. Similarly, Berry (2008) accentuates that ‘learning cannot occur in the absence of feedback which assessment provides’ (p. 1). Research conducted shows that the traditional mode of testing and evaluating students’ performance significantly reduced their motivation to learn (Berry 2008).
Teachers can enhance student’s learning process by integrating different learning theories. Some of the theories that teachers should consider integrating include cognitive theory, constructivism theory, and behaviourism theory. Applying the constructivism learning theory is critical in enhancing the learning process in that it emphasises on the need for students to build personal constructs on the basis of their personal experiences and interaction with the learning environment (Zanden 2009). Constructivism learning theory accentuates that knowledge should be embedded in an applied context. This means that teachers should provide students an opportunity to engage in real tasks in real settings. Zanden (2009) further asserts that the effectiveness of the constructivism theory in enhancing learning is underlined by the fact that ‘it enhances the creation of new and situation-specific understanding by biding knowledge to multiple sources onto the task’ (p. 70). As one of the constructivism theorists, Jerome Bruner accentuates that the instructor’s role is to translate the information intended to be imparted to students into a format that the student or learner is capable of understanding (Takaya 2013).
In addition to constructivism theory, teaching, learning, and assessment can be enhanced through the integration of the cognitivism theory. This theory is supported by different theorists such as John Piaget, and Lev Vygotsky. These theorists were of the view that learning cannot occur without integrating external stimuli. According to Zanden (2009), these theories emphasise that ‘the human mind can be defined as an input-output model of information’ (p.69). Employing the cognitivism theory can further enhance learning by it transforming the learning process into an active process in which the learner is actively involved in the learning process (Nsamenang & Tchombe 2012). The cognitivism theory largely emphasise the importance of transforming the learner’s memory. John Piaget and Lev Vygotsky opine that if learners apply the concepts, rules and knowledge learned in the classroom environment to different scenarios, then the transfer of intended knowledge is achieved. The external environment motivates the learners’ behaviour (Zanden 2009).
With reference to behaviourism, learning is triggered if a learner is subjected to a specific environmental stimulus. The theory further accentuates that learning occurs through observation. Therefore, in applying the behaviourism theory, the teacher can use cues, reinforcers, and effects in order to stimulate learning. Amongst the notable theorists, who emphasise on the importance of entrenching the behaviourism theory in promoting learning include Burrhus Fredrick Skinner and Ivan Pavlov. In his opinion, Ivan Pavlov suggested the concept of classical conditioning in which he trained a dog to respond to unconditioned stimulus such as food and conditioned stimulus by ringing a bell before giving the dog food. The study showed that using the bell conditioned the dog to respond by salivating. Conversely, Fredrick Skinner examined the concept of operant conditioning, which emphasises on reinforcing or rewarding positive feedback or performance (Zanden 2009). On the basis of this aspect, it is possible for teachers to enhance learning by rewarding or complementing students’ performance. By applying the behaviourism theory, teachers can stimulate learning by training students on the intended issues and ensuring that they practice on the issues trained.
Some of the learning principles applied under the constructivism learning theory include collaboration, learning-by-doing, and scaffolding (Harasim 2012). For example, teachers can establish small group teaching techniques in order to enhance the student’s knowledge. Pal et al. (2012) assert that small group teaching is one of the most effective teaching-learning methods in that it increases the depth with which students learn. The application of the principle of small group learning is aligned with Piaget and Vygotsky’s behaviourism theory. According to Piaget and Vygotsky, behaviourism theory stimulates collaborative learning. Alias (2017) asserts that the two theorists, Piaget and Vygotsky, appreciate the importance of collaborative learning because it fosters the co-construction of new knowledge, which is critical in the learning process. Therefore, the teacher only acts as a facilitator of the knowledge construction process. With reference to scaffolding, the teacher continuously interacts with the student or learner with the objective of continuously improving the learners’ knowledge hence improving their capacity to work independently (Seel 2011). By applying the scaffolding technique, the teacher is able to progressively assess the students’ performance (Fautley & Savage 2013).
Another principle that can be applied in the teaching, learning, and assessment process entails effective classroom management. Designing a classroom management plan is one of the essential aspects of enhancing the efficacy with which classroom management is undertaken. Bosch (2006) asserts that the classroom management plan structures teaching, student learning, and autonomy and provides a sense of community in a classroom’ (p. 6). To ensure that the classroom management plan enhances teaching, learning, and assessment, a number of components, which include classroom organisation, instruction, and professional development, must be integrated.
Classroom organisation refers to how the classroom, as one of the learning environments, is organised in order to enhance the effectiveness with which teachers issue instructions. Classroom organisation is comprised of two main elements that include classroom operations and physical elements. The classroom operations relate to the routines, rules, incentives, and consequences developed by the teacher while the physical environment relates to elements such as lighting, temperature, setup and furniture (Bosch 2006). Conversely, instructions entail the lessons and teaching practices adopted by the teacher. Lessons should be effectively designed to enhance learning. Additionally, teachers should enhance learning by integrating effective instructional strategies such as discussion, brainstorming, guided practice activities, and the use of graphic organisers. In addition to these techniques, the instruction delivery process should be strengthened by establishing a good rapport with students. By focusing on nurturing behavioural engagement with the students, teachers are able to understand different needs amongst students that include academic, developmental, cultural, and social-emotional needs (Wentzel & Ramani 2016). Brown (2016) supports Vygotsky’s opinion that ‘the teacher’s role is to engage socially with the student’ (p. 104). The teaching practices should further entail the integration of optimal problem or conflict resolution and decision-making techniques. These practices are essential in nurturing a sense of community hence improving the efficacy with which learning occurs.
The third element in entrenching classroom management entails undertaking evaluation or assessment. Despite the fact that students consider evaluation to be a coercive and unfair classroom practice, it enhances the effectiveness with which teachers assess the student’s develop new knowledge (Bosch 2006). Lastly, teachers can improve their capability to enhance student learning by undertaking a review of their effectiveness in managing the classroom environment. This goal can be achieved through videotaping the teaching process.
How planning meets the individuals needs of learners
In order to enhance the learning process, it is imperative for teachers to integrate the concept of inclusive learning. Gravells and Simpson (2010) define inclusive learning to include the process of ‘recognising that learners are different from each other in many ways and should not be excluded from any activities in the learning session for any legitimate reason’ (p. 50). Therefore, teachers should ensure that the learning sessions are optimally planned in order to achieve the intended learning goals. The planning process can enhance the effectiveness with which teachers address the individual needs of learners by integrating effective planning models. Additionally, teachers should ensure that the teaching programme designed is aligned with the students’ needs and aspirations.
One of the most effective models that teachers can integrate into planning lessons includes the 5E model, which emphases on a hands-on and inquiry-based approach to learning (Oliveira & Weinburgh 2017). The 5E model is very effective in promoting active learning in the classroom. The model is comprised of five main stages, which include engagement, explore, explaining, elaborating or extending, and evaluating. The engagement approach is founded on the constructivist perspective of learning. In planning for this phase, teachers should design the lesson plan in such a way that it provides them an opportunity to examine the students’ prior knowledge relating to a particular topic (Gravells & Simpson 2010). This technique is critical in gaining insight into misconceptions or naïve conceptions on a particular topic amongst students (Llewellyn 2014). Gravells (2012) asserts that the lesson plan should be designed in a way that it addresses the students’ aspirations and needs. Knowledge of the possible misconceptions provides teachers insight into the fundamental issues to focus on in the teaching process under the exploration and explanation phase. The process of planning for learning should entail ensuring that students are provided with the appropriate and accessible resources.
Under the exploration phase, the teacher should engage students in an inquiry. Llewellyn (2014) asserts that ‘during the exploration stage, students explore, raise questions, and develop statements to test and work without direct instruction from the teacher’ (p. 142). One of the techniques that teachers should entrench in planning the exploration phase includes integrating group work as one of the elements in the teaching process. The exploration phase increases the students’ experiences because they are provided an opportunity to explore the issues learned on their own (Gravells & Simpson 2010). One of the ways through which planning can enhance the achievement of this goal entails integrating off-site learning visits in order to enhance the extent to which students explore the issues learned in the classroom (Taylor 2012).
Under the explanation phase, the teacher should focus on facilitating learning by providing additional information on the issues learned. By undertaking effective explanations, the teacher enhances the student’s understanding of new concepts hence increasing the student’s cognitive knowledge (Llewellyn 2014). With reference to elaboration, the teacher assists students to understand how knowledge of the different concepts learned can be applied in real-life situations. Conversely, the evaluation phase involves examining the extent to which students have understood the concepts learned in the lesson.
In addition to the above issues, planning enhances the effectiveness with which teachers meet the individual student’s learning needs by ensuring that the teaching methods adopted are optimally differentiated (Gravells 2012). This technique will play a fundamental role in addressing the learning needs of different students. For example, differentiating the teaching approach will enable the teacher to address the different learning speeds amongst students.
Conclusion
According to the analysis conducted, it is possible for teachers to enhance the teaching, learning, and assessment process by integrating different learning theories, principles, and models. Amongst the notable theories proposed by different theorists include the behaviourism, constructivism, and cognitive theories. These theories support the application of different teaching principles and techniques such as collaborative learning and scaffolding. Additionally, the application of effective classroom management practices can further enhance learning. The analysis further affirms that effective planning can enhance learning through the integration of the 5E learning model.
References
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