The central aim of the anthropological enterprise has always been to understand and comprehend a culture or culture other than one’s own. This inevitably involves either the translation of words, ideas and meanings from one culture to another, or the translation to a set of analytical concepts
- Rubel and Rosman
INTRODUCTION
No man is an island. He is constantly interacting with others of his kind and this societal interaction makes for an interesting study. Social anthropology deals with the cultural aspects of human societies (La Fontaine, 1985). Interestingly, it is observed that culture forms the basis of societal behavior and the study of social and cultural anthropology help in gathering a better understanding of human behavior as well as the impact of cultural influences on human behavior (Eriksen and Hylland, 2017). For instance, a girl or woman in a patriarchal traditional society would not exhibit the same behavior as her counterpart from a more liberal or matriarchal society. It is of interest that social and cultural anthropology tend to go hand in hand and there remains little to separate the two other than a difference in emphasis. This paper examines anthropological enterprises a means of understanding a culture that is different from one’s own through the translation of words ideas and meanings understanding the analytical concepts that form the basis of that culture (Reeves-Ellington and Yammarino, 2010), (Werner, 2004).
ROLE OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL ENTERPRISE
The impact of culture on societies and communities lays the groundwork on which social anthropology rests (Eriksen and Hylland, 2017). A society’s culture inclusive of languages, behavioral rules, ideas, language and creativity are all deeply intertwined (Werner, 2004). Therefore, each component needs to be analyzed with respect to the others rather than as independent variables. Each component contributes to form a part of the community’s culture and this is reflected in the overall growth of that society (Budick and Iser, 1996). A look at the medieval period and a comparison with the industrial period is a case in point. While the importance given to King and Country showed a gradual decline, the industrial revolution also contributed towards creation of a working class that had nothing to do with the Lords and Ladies of the land. This working class was completely focused on its own growth aided by the dream of an industrialized nation that would help it to break the shackles imposed by nobles and clergy. This change in ideology resulted in the creation of the Middle class and also towards the decline of the nobility as was seen during the medieval period. The industrial revolution by itself was a remarkable change but when considered in light if the renaissance or even Medieval Europe, the impact on the art and cultural front was significant. Towards this end, it would be apt to state that understanding a culture other than one’s own would not be possible without translating the various available literature as well as verbal and non-verbal inputs (Gingrich and Fox 2002).
A look at the painting of the period or reading poetry written during this change would be an eye-opener to many a social anthropologist wanting to understand the culture of the community. Comprehending culture is no easy task as it is influenced by traditions of the period as well as redundant customs which are not only irrelevant, but also difficult to interpret based on current scenarios (Budick and Iser, 1996). Thus, the emphasis on intellectual and social institutions as well as their internal relationships plays a key role in accurately translating cultural artifacts and understanding the culture of the place (Eriksen and Hylland, 2017). For instance, if one were to consider an Islamic country, regardless of its level of development, women rarely hold any position of authority. In fact, even when they are in the limelight, it is merely in the role of a figurehead without any real authority. Such societies tend to be patriarchal and authority always remains with the male members of the community. However, in western countries as well as Asian countries that are not Islamic, many women are in positions of power and authority. If one were to study these cultures and examine their beginnings, the same cultural trend can be seen. Japan, China, India, America and England are just some of the countries which have enjoyed a high level of prosperity under the capable leadership of both male and female leaders (Nelson and Rudolph, 2010). Islamic countries on the other hand, have always been seen to follow a culture wherein women are restricted to being caretakers of home and hearth, with many even being denied a proper education.
ANALYING CONCEPTS: A CORE ACTIVITY OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Social anthropology may thus be associated with analysis in order to interpret the facts based on various scenarios like the cultural background, and so on (Eriksen and Hylland, 2017). Therefore, it would not be wrong to say that anthropological research would not only be long drawn, but also be spent in observing participants as well as translating their various works including pictorial, verbal and written so as to identify with the culture. Social anthropology as a science can be co-related to the study of human behavior or Psychology, but in a broader sense since it relates to society rather than individuals (La Fontaine, 1985). While Psychology deals with individual human behavior, social anthropology deals with the behavior of a society as a whole. Thus, it would be accurate to state that social anthropology is the means to understanding why a society behaves in a particular manner; the root causes of its taboos and beliefs as well as the ideology that holds the various members of the society together (Nelson , 2007). Several communities may form a part of the society and Integration into the society is achieved by respecting the diverse cultures that are found in a society (Gingrich and Fox, 2002).
Early human beings formed groups for protection, but a look at several indigenous tribes in India, the red Indians in America or the Maoris in New Zealand shows that their society is held together by certain beliefs and ideologies rather than mere proximity to one another (Nelson and Rudolph, 2010). Just like persons of similar religious beliefs get together and spend time with each other, so too different communities or societies who share in the same beliefs. For instance the vast lands of Africa are home to many tribes, yet often they have sharply different beliefs and thus create differences between the tribes. However, almost all members within the group tend to share similar beliefs and ideologies which in turn hold the group together (Ojaide and Obi, 2002). By extension, it would also be accurate to state hat a destruction of these beliefs and ideologies would suffice to destroy the bonding that holds the group together. The industrial revolution is a perfect example of a society breaking up due to destruction in beliefs and ideologies. The growth of China and Japan can be attributed to the manner in which the entire community followed the same ideology to spectacular results.
Sharing a culture means that people have a common way of viewing their relationship with the social and physical environment (Nelson, 2007). They communicating their thoughts and emotions in a similar manner; assign priorities to some activities and tend to dividing tasks and resources. They attribute values, honors, and powers to some common beliefs (Budick and Iser, 1996). Various cultures flourish from the recognition that they represent a set of beliefs, thinking and practices that are peculiar to them. It is observed that elements such as language, beliefs, norms, and values are what bring about culture diversities. Ethnicity, ideology and social identity are different facets of the study of community and community behavior (Gingrich and Fox, 2002). Contemporary social practices, its relevance and impact form the crux of the study of social anthropology (La Fontaine, 1985).
The hands-on approach followed in social anthropology studies ensures that the cultural impact on the various works of art are comprehended and documented accurately. While this may seem time consuming, there is no better method of understanding human behavior than observation (Nelson , 2007). Unlike all other social sciences, anthropology, thus involves a close interaction with the community being studied in order to have a deep understanding of the concepts and ideas that influence the community as a whole. However, such studies are not limited to small and isolated communities. Rather they can be and often are conducted on wider societies as well. Culture comprises of material objects like books, art and artifacts as well as abstract thoughts and behavior (Gingrich and Fox, 2002). Some of the elements which are consider while studying and understanding culture diversity are language, norms, beliefs and values (Reeves-Ellington and Yammarino, 2010). Cultural diversity, particularly between cultural sub groups also points towards the complexity of society as a whole.
Learning the language is just part of the role played by social anthropologists as they unravel the working of communities, many of which have been living in isolation for a considerable period of time (Reeves-Ellington and Yammarino, 2010).. The accuracy of anthropological studies is enhanced by such interactions at the grass-root levels as the researcher understands the texture of the social fabric as well as its deep-rooted ideas (Budick and Iser, 1996). He then identifies underlying behavior and analyses its meaning as well as relevance to the society being studied. The observations would include taboos, rituals, religious practices as well as social norms including dressing and food habits (Nelson , 2007). In addition, the anthropologist would also learn the language and work towards translating the verbal and oral works like books, songs, ballads and stories. This two-pronged approach would help in gathering information about social practices as well as its significance that have been forgotten with the passage of time. The anthropologist would thus be able to provide an accurate picture of the cultural fabric of the society being studied, in addition to its present day working as well as ideologies. He can also, through careful observation and interpretation trace the origin of various rituals, beliefs and rituals within that society.
ROLE OF TRANSLATOR IN SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY
The role of a translator in understanding and interpreting the organizing principles of social life that may govern both individual as well as social behavior cannot be ignored (West, 2005). An able translator, thus is not only a master of the language, but also has a deep-rooted understanding and an affinity to the culture of the land (Budick and Iser, 1996). This alone would help breathe life into his interpretations and translations, which otherwise, would be mere words without inherent meaning. The simplest example would be dragons, a mythical creature that has a place across various societies and countries. While in Asia, particularly China and Japan, the Dragon is considered noble and deeply revered, the same creature is considered villainous in Europe and deeply feared. Thus, the Chinese dragons are wise creates of power while the European dragons are dangerous creatures who breathe fire and kidnap damsels!
RELEVANCE OF THESE STUDIES IN THE PRESENT TIMES
Anthropological studies have thrived on understanding cultures as well as cross-cultural behavior, particularly in the present scenario of globalization (Gingrich and Fox, 2002). Industrial societies have reaped significant benefits from these studies which are the key to helping global teams work in close interaction, particularly among organizations that use virtual teams that are usually physically far apart, to work on different modules of the same program. The growing knowledge of various societies draws attention to issues that may have been pushed aside as well as factors that would have shaped the community over a period of time. Thus empowered, social anthropologies are in a position to compare different societies and arrive at a broader and deeper understanding of human behavior that is seen across society in general.
Yet a look at the macro pictures shows a common thread that runs through all societies and communities knitting them together into the fabric of modern society yet seeped in traditional beliefs and values.
However, it is also important to understand that culture not only means books, art, music and education (Budick and Iser, 1996). Rather, culture is also the actions and reactions including mundane activities like eating, cooking, cleaning, sleeping, talking and so in. Raising children, making love, importance accorded to education, treatment of the opposite sex, thinking, ideology, commerce, politics, revolutions and rebellions, inherited traditions and perceptions are all a part of the culture of that society (Walker, 2001). Societies keep growing and becoming more complex. This complexity gives rise to a variety of cultural traditions. The more complex the society; the greater is the possibility of the culture being varied and diverse (Rubel and Rosman, 2003). The causes of cultural changes in a society are cultural diffusion, innovation, and imposition of cultural change by the outside world. Social anthropology identifies these factors as it analyses human behavior and the reasoning behind various behavioral patterns (West, 2005). Children obtain these cultural values from birth by observing practices around them. Thus, community rather than genetics places a vital role in fostering the behavioral patterns in children (Campbell, 1989).
CONCLUSION
The science of Anthropology is complex and includes the culture, history, Philosophy, social structure, geography, economics, psychology and biology of the community. It would be apt to state that a deep understanding of the culture would help in easily understanding and interpreting human behavior (West, 2005). Furthermore, the best method of understanding any culture is through their words either in form of stories, poems, songs or more graphical representations like paintings and craft (Rubel and Rosman, 2003). Unfortunately, language often acts as a barrier to this type of in-depth understanding. Often cultural understanding is dependent on the translation skills of the translator alone, bringing about a significant limitation to a deeper understanding of human behavior based on cultural expressions (Reeves-Ellington and Yammarino, 2010). Anthropology thus offers an explanation on human behavior and in the society by analyzing the intentions and behavior of individuals and communities (Eriksen and Hylland, 2017). It is seen that social institutions like family, marriage, schools, and churches and so on tend to have a considerable impact on the values and social behavior of the community. Therefore, culture comprises of the complete range of human behavioral patterns. It includes both customs and traditions that are transmitted through learning and adaptations (Walker, 2001), (Rubel and Rosman, 2003).
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